There are more than 500 amino acids in nature but the human body only needs 20 types of them to form a protein that can then help it function properly. Of those 20 amino acids, the body can synthesize 11 of them.¹In alphabetical order, the amino acids that the body makes are alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine. They’re collectively known as nonessential amino acids. The remaining nine that the body can’t make by itself are called essential amino acids and have to be obtained from food.²In alphabetical order, the amino acids that the body can’t make include histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. Foods that contain all nine essential amino acids are referred to as complete proteins. All animal products are sources of complete proteins, as well as quinoa, buckwheat, hemp seed, blue-green algae, and soybeans.

There are 20 types of amino acids commonly found in the proteins the body creates to perform a variety of jobs that are important to health and wellbeing. The body synthesizes 11 of those amino acids by itself and has to obtain the rest from food. Foods that are missing one or more of those essential amino acids are known as incomplete proteins.³Factually, all foods contain all the essential amino acids and none of them are “missing”. Instead, these foods in question have extremely low amounts of one or more of the necessary amino acids. Plant-based products fall under this category, with the exception of the select few plant foods that contain all nine essential amino acids in appreciable amounts and therefore don’t have to be combined with other protein sources to make up for the shortfall.

Carbs that are quickly utilized for energy and consequently prompt a rapid rise in blood sugar and insulin secretion are classed as simple carbohydrates. This rapid digestion and absorption is largely owed to the fact that simple carbs are composed of a few sugar units that make them small in size, in addition to the sugar molecules having relatively weak hydrogen bonds that allow for water to easily pull them apart.

◦ MONOSACCHARIDES

Monosaccharides serve as the building blocks for other sugars because they’re the simplest form of carbohydrates on account of them consisting of only one sugar molecule. Due to this structure, they can’t be broken down further into smaller carbs, or units of sugar, by the process of hydrolysis, which is a chemical reaction that uses water to break down the bonds of compounds.

— GLUCOSE
Packaged cakes and cookies, candy, syrups, and sweetened beverages like soda and juice are among the manufactured products that typically contain glucose (C6H12O6) that isn’t bound to other sugars but free glucose can also be found in some natural sources, such as honey, sweet corn, grapes, bananas, and plums, and dried apricots, figs, and dates, as well as prunes and raisins.⁵

— FRUCTOSE
Also known as “fruit sugar”, fructose has the same chemical formula as glucose but it has a five-membered ring structure that has a ketone group (C = O) internally within the chain as opposed to a six-membered ring structure with an aldehyde group (-CHO) at the end of the carbon chain. Unbound fructose can be found in a number of fruits like apples, pears, oranges, grapes, bananas, and watermelon, for example. The free sugar is also present in honey, agave nectar, molasses, and maple syrup, and in lesser amounts in some vegetables, like artichokes, asparagus, and sugar snap peas. Processed sources include fruit juice, soft drinks, baked goods, candy, and condiments from the addition of high-fructose corn syrup.

— GALACTOSE
A hydroxyl group consists of an oxygen atom bonded to a hydrogen atom (-OH). The orientation of that functional group at carbon number 4 is different on galactose and that’s enough for it to have different chemical and biochemical properties than glucose despite having the same molecular formula. As a monosaccharide, galactose is rarely found in food and is instead usually bound with glucose to form lactose. Apart from lactose hydrolysate syrup that’s used as a sweetener in baking and confectionery, the limited items that do contain the sugar have small quantities of it. Those foods include honey, cherries, avocados, plums, celery, butter, flavored yogurt, and some dried beans and peas.

◦ DISACCHARIDES

When the hydroxyl group of one monosaccharide combines with the hydrogen of another monosaccharide, a water molecule is released and a chemical bond is formed between the two sugar units in creation of a disaccharide, which is basically a double sugar.

— MALTOSE
Maltose, or malt sugar, is the resultant product when two glucose molecules undergo dehydration synthesis and bond together. This compound can be found in sprouted grains like corn, wheat, and barley, in addition to peaches and cooked sweet potatoes. The only other source of maltose in appreciable amounts is in manufactured foods and beverages that use malted grains and their powders, extracts, and syrups, such as beer and whiskey and certain types of breads and baked goods, breakfast cereals, granola bars, and chocolate confections.

— SUCROSE
What immediately comes to mind when people think of the word “sugar” is white sugar. That type of sugar is nothing more than sucrose, which is composed of an equal mix of glucose and fructose molecules. Table or cane sugar, as it’s also known as, can be found in apples, apricots, oranges, peaches, pineapples, mangos, red beets, carrots, sweet potatoes, and tree saps like maple syrup and molasses. The most common contributor of sucrose to the diet, however, comes from its commercial production from sugar beets and sugarcane and addition to items like soda, juice, canned fruit, ice cream, cake, chocolate, breakfast cereals, ketchup, spaghetti sauce, and salad dressing.

— LACTOSE
Glucose and galactose are the two monosaccharides that make up lactose, which is often called milk sugar because it’s exclusively found in dairy from animal sources. That means it’s present in milk, buttermilk, cream, yogurt, kefir, cheese, and an assortment of products that contain milk-based ingredients, like ice cream, sherbet, milk chocolate, whey protein powder, bread, pastries, cake, and certain types of sauces, soups, salad dressings, and condiments. Processed meat like cold cuts, sausages, hot dogs, and ham may also contain lactose from the use of dairy products to boost flavor, improve texture, and act as a binder.

Complex carbohydrates are composed of long chains of sugar molecules that are joined together by strong hydrogen bonds that make them hard to break down and dissolve in water. Given this larger size and more complicated structure than simple carbohydrates, complex carbs take longer to process. As a result, they provide a slow and steady release of energy and have a gradual effect on blood sugar.

◦ OLIGOSACCHARIDES

Oligosaccharides are short-chain carbs made of three to ten monosaccharide units. Because humans lack the enzymes in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine to digest them, these sugar molecules aren’t hydrolyzed and broken down like most other carbs that are consumed. Instead, they pass through the digestive tract largely intact and travel to the large intestine. There, they’re fermented by bacteria to produce short-chain fatty acids that nourish the gut lining, reduce inflammation, and provide a small amount of energy that fuel colon cells. Additionally, resistant oligosaccharides further support gastrointestinal health by promoting the growth of beneficial bacteria and suppressing that of harmful bacteria to help maintain a healthy microbial balance. Due to this prebiotic behavior and the body deriving little global energy usage from them, oligosaccharides are mostly included in the family of dietary fiber.⁵The minimum number of units that constitute an oligosaccharide can vary depending on the convention. So in some instances, the disaccharides maltose, lactose, and sucrose are categorized as oligosaccharides, which leads to the distinction of resistant oligosaccharides and those that the body can fully extract energy from.

— FRUCTOOLIGOSACCHARIDES
Fructans are chains of fructose molecules that link to a glucose molecule at their terminal end. A chain of fructan that’s 2-10 units in length is a fructooligosaccharide, or oligofructan. Bananas, onions, asparagus, chicory root, garlic, jicama, leeks, Jerusalem artichokes, and blue agave are some of the sources with the highest concentration of this sugar.

— GALACTOOLIGOSACCHARIDES
Repeating chains of galactose molecules with a terminal glucose unit are known as galactooligosaccharides and they’re present in chickpeas, lentils, a variety of beans and soy products, and certain nuts like cashews and pistachios.

— RAFFINOSE
Commonly found in beans and whole grains, plus vegetables like broccoli, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, and asparagus, raffinose is a trisaccharide consisting of glucose, fructose, and galactose molecules.

— STACHYOSE
Stachyose is composed of one glucose and fructose unit and two units of galactose. That means it’s a tetrasaccharide, or made up of four sugar molecules. It’s mostly found in peanuts, peas, green beans, soybeans, lentils, chickpeas, and other similar foods.

— VERBASCOSE
Composed of sucrose and three molecules of galactose, verbascose is a pentasaccharide that’s most abundant in soybeans but is also present in other legumes, such as mung beans, chickpeas, and lentils.

◦ POLYSACCHARIDES

Molecules that contain more than ten units of sugar are known as polysaccharides and this structure is the form that most carbohydrates occur in food.

— STARCH
Plants make starch to store energy from the excess glucose produced during photosynthesis. That reserve food supply is made up of long chains of glucose and if the structure is linear and consists of several hundred glucose molecules, then it’s called amylose. Amylopectin is a starch with a branched structure that contains several thousand molecules of glucose. Starch is usually a mixture of the two structures, both of which are insoluble in water but are able to be broken down fully for absorption by the aid of salivary and pancreatic amylase, which are a type of enzyme. Major sources of starch include nuts, seeds, legumes, grains, and roots and tubers, like carrots, turnips, beets, potatoes, and sweet potatoes.

— RESISTANT STARCH
Resistant starch has the physical characteristics of regular starch but it’s resistant to digestive enzymes. As a result, resistant starch doesn’t undergo hydrolysis. Instead, as is the case with fiber, resistant starches travel through the small intestine to the large intestine and are fermented there by gut microbes, which produces short-chain fatty acids that help reduce inflammation and promote colon health. Other benefits of resistant starch include improved blood sugar regulation and greater insulin sensitivity. Additionally, because the substance takes longer to make its way through the digestive system, it also supports weight management by increasing the feeling of fullness, which promotes satiety and has the potential to drive down appetite. Along with that, the production of short-chain fatty acids like butyrate has also been found to increase fat burning. Nuts, seeds, legumes, and unripe bananas and plantains are food sources that are high in resistant starch but it can also be formed or increased by cooking certain foods and allowing them to cool in the refrigerator for several hours before consumption. Those foods include rice, oatmeal, potatoes, and pasta.

— CELLULOSE
Given that the planet is covered with grass, flowers, trees, algae, and other terrestrial and marine vegetation, cellulose has the distinction of being the most abundant carbohydrate on earth because it’s what provides structural support to plants by being the main component in the wall of plant cells. Cellulose is similarly made up of hundreds to thousands of glucose units like starch but it has a beta configuration instead of an alpha configuration, meaning that its hydroxyl group on the first carbon points up rather than down. That mark of delineation is what makes all the difference in the world because most humans lack the digestive enzymes that are necessary to break beta bonds in cellulose for the release of energy. Neither do humans have the gut bacteria to ferment cellulose when it makes its way to the colon. Now, even though cellulose doesn’t offer much in regards to energy production and the promotion of a healthy microbiota, it does add bulk to stool and prevent constipation, in addition to several other benefits that make the carbohydrate a beneficial dietary fiber. Significant sources of cellulose include nuts, seeds, legumes, whole grains, vegetables, and fruits, especially those with edible skins.

— PECTIN
Galacturonic acid is a sugar derived from galactose. Many linked units of that sugar derivative form the main structure of pectin, another substance found in the cell walls of certain plants, with it functioning as a glue that holds the walls together. Galacturonic acid is an indigestible sugar that’s fermented by gut bacteria in the same way as most other carbohydrates that are too complex for the human body to derive energy from. Pectin can be found in almost every food from a terrestrial plant but it’s especially rich in apples, carrots, apricots, oranges, and the peel and pulp of lemons, grapefruit, and other citrus. Because of its gum-like qualities, pectin is also commercially produced and used as an ingredient in jams, jellies, and fruit preserves as a thickening agent.

— INULIN
Fructans are chains of fructose molecules that link to a glucose molecule at their terminal end. Inulin is a chain of 10 or more fructose units. Because it’s not broken down and absorbed by the body to produce energy but provides benefits to digestive health, inulin is classed as a dietary fiber. Inulin is found in asparagus, leeks, garlic, onions, bananas, and grains like barley, wheat, and oatmeal but its concentration is highest in chicory root, Jerusalem artichoke, and the rhizomes of ginger and turmeric.

— CHITIN
Sugar derivatives are simple sugars that don’t have a hydroxyl group. One example of a sugar derivative, or modified sugar, is N-acetylglucosamine, which has a carbonyl group (C = O) that links to a nitrogen atom. Repeating units of this sugar form the structural components of fungal cell walls and the exoskeletons of insects and crustaceans. That makes chitin the second most abundant carbohydrate on the planet after cellulose, which it doesn’t behave like because it’s also indigestible but functions as a prebiotic fiber that feeds gut bacteria. The most common sources of chitin in the human diet are mushrooms, yeast, soft shell crabs, unpeeled shrimp and prawns, and edible insects, like grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, and mealworms.

When a fatty acid chain is connected by single bonds, that means that the individual carbon atoms are filled, or saturated, with hydrogen atoms. It’s this chemical structure that gives saturated fat its name and is why this type of fat is typically solid at room temperature, as it’s more stable.

Due to the stability from the structure of saturated fat, as well as the way it interacts with digestive enzymes, the body has a difficult time breaking it down, which makes it harder to burn for energy. Another strike against saturated fat is that it can increase LDL, or bad, cholesterol, which can build up as plaque in the arteries and cause blockages resulting in heart disease and stroke. It’s for these reasons that it’s recommended to limit intake to under 10 percent of daily calories. High levels of saturated fat are common in fatty cuts of meat, poultry skin, processed meat products like ham, bacon, cold cuts, and sausage, and whole and reduced fat milk and the products made with them, such as butter, cream, cheese, chocolate, ice cream, pudding, and other dairy products.⁶All fat products contain a mixture of various fatty acids but the foods in this category are listed based on the predominant type of fat.

◦ MEDIUM-CHAIN TRIGLYCERIDES

Triglycerides are a combination of glycerol, a naturally-occurring alcohol, and three fatty acid molecules. Medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) are triglycerides that are 6 to 12 carbon atoms in length. They tend to be liquid at room temperature and unlike the other fats, there aren’t that many foods that are high in them. Some of the handful of sources of MCTs include coconut meat and oil, palm kernel oil, MCT oil, ghee, and dairy products containing goat and cow milk.⁷All fat products contain a mixture of various fatty acids but the foods in this category are listed based on the predominant type of fat.

Medium-chain triglycerides are believed to have weight loss and exercise benefits because the body doesn’t have to work hard to process them, as their chemical structure makes the fat more likely to be metabolized as fuel than to be added to the body’s fat stores. More conclusive research, however, is needed to substantiate that claim, as well as the health benefits that are associated with MCTs. At the moment, MCTs are generally considered safe but it’s recommended to limit intake to 5-10 percent of daily calories.

Typically solid at room temperature, trans fats are a type of unsaturated fatty acid chain with the hydrogen atoms appearing on opposite sides of a carbon-carbon double bond instead of on the same side, thus giving it a trans configuration rather than the standard cis configuration that’s found in other fats.

Now, while unsaturated fat is easier for the body to make use of because there are gaps between the molecules that make their bonds easier to break, that’s not the case with trans fat. Instead, trans fat is extremely stable and that’s why it’s difficult for the body to metabolize it into energy. Trans fat also has health risks, being that it increases harmful LDL cholesterol and lowers HDL, or good, cholesterol; promotes systemic inflammation; and contributes to the development of type 2 diabetes by making the body insulin resistant. At the current moment, trans fat has no health or fitness benefits and there’s no safe level of consumption. As such, intake should be limited to less than 1 percent of daily calories from the cakes, cookies, muffins, doughnuts, chips, crackers, microwave popcorn, French fries, frozen pizza, and stick margarine and shortening that trans fats are prevalent in.⁸All fat products contain a mixture of various fatty acids but the foods in this category are listed based on the predominant type of fat.

Monounsaturated fat is a type of fatty acid chain that has one carbon-to-carbon double bond and single bonds on all the remaining carbon atoms instead of them being filled, or saturated, with hydrogen atoms. On account of this structure where the molecules aren’t tightly packed, monounsaturated fats (MUFAs) tend to be liquid at room temperature. That structure is also why MUFAs are better for energy purposes, as the body can metabolize them easier because the gaps between molecules provide the enzymes access for breakdown.

The way in which the body makes use of monounsaturated fat for energy makes it an ideal choice because there’s less likelihood of its storage as body fat compared to other types of dietary fat. But also working in favor of MUFAs is that they have a satiating effect and help regulate blood sugar levels, both of which help with weight management by controlling hunger. From a health standpoint, there’s also evidence that monounsaturated fat is good for heart health due to its ability to raise beneficial HDL cholesterol while lowering harmful LDL cholesterol. For these reasons, monounsaturated fat is categorized as a “good” fat. The recommended intake is 15-20 percent of daily calories. Sources include avocados, almonds, peanuts, and cashews and their respective nut butters, sesame seeds, and sesame, olive, and canola oils.⁹All fat products contain a mixture of various fatty acids but the foods in this category are listed based on the predominant type of fat.

◦ OMEGA-7 FATTY ACIDS

Macadamia nuts, avocados, salmon, anchovies, sea buckthorn, and Macadamia and olive oils are all sources of monounsaturated fats that the body can produce on its own.¹⁰All fat products contain a mixture of various fatty acids but the foods in this category are listed based on the predominant type of fat. These fats in particular are omega-7 fatty acids and apart from the distinction that they can be synthesized, the only difference between them and other monounsaturated fats is that they have a chemical structure consisting of one carbon-to-carbon double bond seven carbon atoms away from the omega end, or terminal point, of the fatty acid chain. That being the case that omega-7 fatty acids are MUFAs, they’re also liquid at room temperature and have pretty much the same benefits, as well as some of their own. Because the body doesn’t have to obtain omega-7 fatty acids from the diet, there are no intake recommendations.

◦ OMEGA-9 FATTY ACIDS

Omega-9 fatty acids are monounsaturated fats that have one carbon-to-carbon double bond located in the ninth carbon position from the omega end of the molecule. That being the case that omega-9 fatty acids are MUFAs, they’re also liquid at room temperature and have pretty much the same benefits, as well as some of their own. Also similar is the likeness of omega-9 fatty acids to omega-7 fatty acids, in that the body can produce them on its own, making them nonessential because the body doesn’t have to obtain them from the diet. As such, there are no intake recommendations for omega-9 fatty acids, which can be found in avocados, eggs, oatmeal, and certain nuts like almonds, cashews, and walnuts, as well as olive oil, avocado oil, rapeseed oil, mustard seed oil, and canola oil.¹¹All fat products contain a mixture of various fatty acids but the foods in this category are listed based on the predominant type of fat.

Polyunsaturated fat is a type of fatty acid chain that’s connected by two or more carbon-to-carbon double bonds instead of the individual carbon atoms being saturated with hydrogen atoms, which makes the gaps loosely filled. As such, polyunsaturated fats (PUFAs) are usually liquid at room temperature and the body doesn’t have a difficult time breaking them down for energy, thus lowering the potential for their storage in the body’s fat reserves for later use.

Similar to how monounsaturated fatty acids are considered necessary for the optimal functioning of many body processes, PUFAs are actually essential because they can’t be synthesized by the body from other types of fats or carbs in the fashion that MUFAs can. So to enjoy any of their number of benefits, such as reducing inflammation and improving heart health, for example, polyunsaturated fat has to be obtained from the diet. Toward that end, it’s recommended for intake to consist of 5-10 percent of daily calories. High concentrations of polyunsaturated fats are found in walnuts and pine nuts, soybeans, and tofu, and flaxseeds, chia seeds, and sunflower seeds, in addition to the oils made from those seeds.¹²All fat products contain a mixture of various fatty acids but the foods in this category are listed based on the predominant type of fat.

◦ OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS

Omega-3 fatty acids are polyunsaturated fats that are liquid at room temperature and have a chemical structure consisting of multiple carbon-to-carbon double bonds, with the first appearing three carbon atoms away from the omega of the molecular chain. Omega-3 fatty acids are primarily believed to be beneficial for reducing inflammation, lowering blood pressure, and decreasing the level of triglycerides in the blood, thus helping to lower the risk of heart disease. That benefit, however, is mostly associated with the consumption of omega-3 fatty acids from food, not supplements. So for the purpose of improving heart health, intake should consist of food and comprise 0.5-2 percent of daily calories. Sources to choose from include walnuts, pine nuts, flaxseeds, sunflower seeds, algal oil, scallops, mussels, Pacific oysters, and oily fish, such as salmon, trout, anchovies, mackerel, sardines, tuna, and herring.¹³All fat products contain a mixture of various fatty acids but the foods in this category are listed based on the predominant type of fat.

◦ OMEGA-6 FATTY ACIDS

Omega-6 fatty acids are PUFAs that are the same as omega-3 fatty acids, with the exception that their last carbon-to-carbon double bond is six carbon atoms away from the terminal end of their molecular chain. In the diet, omega-6 fatty acids provide energy and may play a role in reducing the risk of heart disease and regulating the metabolism, in addition to other benefits. Too many omega-6 fatty acids, however, may increase the risk of inflammation and inflammatory disease from the conversion of linolenic acid, a common omega-6 fatty acid in food, into another fatty acid called arachidonic acid. As it stands, the average person consuming the standard American diet eats almost 10 times the recommended amount of omega-6 fatty acids while not consuming enough omega-3 fatty acids for a healthy ratio between the two. For this reason, intake of omega-3 fatty acids should be increased while intake of omega-6 fatty acids is limited to 2.5-9 percent of daily calories. Among the sources to be mindful of are tofu, tahini, walnuts, pumpkin and sunflower seeds, mayonnaise, salad dressing, margarine, and an assortment of plant oils including corn oil, sunflower oil, soybean oil, grapeseed oil, flaxseed oil, and safflower oil.¹⁴All fat products contain a mixture of various fatty acids but the foods in this category are listed based on the predominant type of fat.

Dietary fiber that doesn’t absorb water adds bulk to stool, which helps stimulate regular bowel movements by accelerating the movement of waste through the intestines to clear it from the body. Good sources of insoluble fiber include apples and pears and other fruits with edible skin, cauliflower, artichoke, asparagus, spinach, kale, almonds, walnuts, brown rice, and wheat bran.¹⁵Foods that are high in fiber typically contain a mix of soluble and insoluble fiber. The foods in this category are listed based on the type of fiber that’s predominant.

CALORIES: 0 kcal/g

◦ POLYSACCHARIDES

— Cellulose¹⁶This type of fiber is non-fermentable.
— Hemicellulose¹⁷This type of fiber is non-fermentable.
— Lignin¹⁸This type of fiber is non-fermentable.
— Chitin
— Resistant Starch¹⁹Resistant starch is listed here as an insoluble fiber but it also has the characteristics of soluble fiber.

Dietary fibers that absorb water create a gel-like substance that takes up space in the stomach and slows down the transit time of food from the gut to the small intestine. That not only helps promote fullness and reduce appetite but the delayed digestion also contributes to blood sugar control by preventing spikes in blood glucose levels, as the sugar from food is slowly released and absorbed by the body. Additionally, soluble fiber can lower blood cholesterol levels from the gel binding to cholesterol and preventing it from being absorbed into the bloodstream, with it then excreted from the body in the stool. Many plant-based foods contain soluble fiber but it’s especially high in oatmeal, barley, flaxseeds, hazel nuts, chickpeas, Brussels sprouts, carrots, avocados, bananas, and fruits with edible skins that are peeled.²⁰Foods that are high in fiber typically contain a mix of insoluble and soluble fiber. The foods in this category are listed based on the type of fiber that’s predominant.

CALORIES: ~2 kcal/g²¹Soluble fiber provides about 2 calories per gram but only in fibers that are fermentable. Also, the actual amount of energy that can be yielded from a soluble fiber source depends on the specific source and type of bacteria colonies you have in your gut, which can vary from person to person.

◦ OLIGOSACCHARIDES

— Fructooligosaccharides
— Galactooligosaccharides

◦ POLYSACCHARIDES

— Inulin
— Pectin
— Beta-Glucans
— Guar Gum
— Glucomannan
— Mucilage
— Polydextrose
— Polyols
— Carrageenan
— Psyllium²²This type of fiber is non-fermentable.
— Resistant Starch²³Resistant starch is listed here as a soluble fiber but it also has the characteristics of insoluble fiber.
— Resistant Dextrin

Vitamins that can only be utilized by the body in the presence of dietary fat are otherwise known as fat-soluble vitamins.²⁴Vitamins A, D, E and K. After these vitamins are made accessible from digested food, they’re transported through the lymphatic system to the bloodstream to the liver and fatty tissues of the body, where they’re stored for later use and delivery into the bloodstream.

Water-soluble vitamins are those that dissolve in water.²⁵Vitamin C and the B vitamins, which include thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, biotin, folate and cobalamin. When these vitamins are made accessible from digested food, they’re directly absorbed from the small intestine into the bloodstream and what isn’t used by the body is excreted through the urine. That being the case that the body doesn’t store water-soluble vitamins to draw from when necessary, they have to be consumed on a more frequent basis than their fat-soluble counterparts to prevent deficiencies.²⁶The exception is B12, which can be stored in the liver for a handful of years.

Elements that have been defined as macrominerals are those that the body requires in hundreds of milligrams per day.²⁷e.g. calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sulfur, sodium, chloride, and potassium.

Trace minerals, also known as trace elements and microminerals, are a group of minerals that are required in amounts of 15 mg per day or less.²⁸e.g. chromium, cobalt, copper, fluoride, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, and zinc.

Elements that are considered ultratrace are minerals that the body requires in micrograms per day.²⁹e.g. arsenic, boron, nickel, silicon, and vanadium.